Meaning that emerges out of text-context relations. Apart from (often) having a denotational meaning, linguistic and other signs are indexical in that they suggest metapragmatic, metalinguistic, metadiscursive features of meaning. Thus, an utterance may indexically invoke social norms, roles, identities.

Linguistic landscape is an object of sociolinguistic analysis and comprises publicly visible language samples displayed in a certain area.

Formats are recognizably patterned forms of behavior, subject to norms and judged accordingly by others.